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The analysis Indicated the existence of two types of operationalizations for two-sided messages refuta- tional and nonrefutational. The results demonstrate that a two-sided message with refuta- tion is more persuasive than a one-sided message while a one-sided message is more per- suasive than a two-sided message without refutation. An enduring concern of students in public speaking and persuasion is whether a com- municator should address potential counterarguments when advancing any thesis.
Aristotle assumed that any good public communicator would want to handle opposing arguments. The book's treatment advised how best to incorporate the responses into a presentation. However, his ex- amples and forums are interactive cotirts and deliberative bodies where the speaker is speaking after or prior to the opposing side.
Aristotle devoted little attention to those settings where the opposing side is not immediately present. Apart from any consideration of a particular strategy to address ex- isting counterarguments, a more fundamental question exists for a com- municator.
Should a communicator consider potential counterarguments and include a refutation of them when formulating or organizing a speech? A one-sided message will be defined as a message that presents only those arguments in favor of a particular proposition. A two-sided message presents the arguments in favor of a proposition but also con- siders the opposing arguments. Every communicator engaged in creating a persuasive message must decide whether to consider opposing viewpoints.
The two ex- planations receiving attention are the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Discounting Hypothesis. The Discounting Hypothesis bases an explana- tion on the cognitive experiences of message receivers Smith, Elements of the situation work to in- hibit or promote elaboration of message content. Message sidedness is not generally linked to the workings of the ELM as Petty and Cacioppo note Sidedness of a message is linked to the theory when, "motiva- tion and ability to think about the issue will determine the route to per- suasion" p.
A two-sided message is more persuasive than a one-sided message under these conditions because the content appears well-informed and admits that the reason for the audience hostility is rational but not ac- ceptable because a superior set of reasoning exists. The one-sided message is superior for a favorable audience because the message focuses on the agreeable arguments.
Failure to mention possible counterargu- ments assures that the attention of the audience and the cognitive pro- cessing of the audience remains focused on the opinion advocated by the message sender. The two-sided or one-sided message under different conditions of audience favorableness will be more or less persuasive. The ELM predicts that message sidedness has differing effects for audiences depending on factors relating to the motivation for process- ing information e.
The level of favorableness will vary from experiment to experiment as different audiences and different topics are selected. Such an inconsistency creates conditions that produce a set of heterogeneous effects across experiments comparing the effectiveness of one- and two-sided messages. The result is summarized in the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1: Results of message sidedness experiments will not dem- onstrate consistent and homogeneous results unless au- dience favorableness is considered: A.
A one-sided message will be more persuasive for a favorable audience. A two-sided message will be more persuasive for an unfavorable audience. For example, suppose a communicator thought to be fairminded, open, and honest addresses an audience on an issue known to be controver- sial. The communicator fails to acknowledge the existence of an oppos- ing position. The audience may react negatively to the communicator and "discount" the opinion, whereas the two-sided message acknowledges the controversialness and increases the effectiveness of the com- municator.
For a noncontroversial topic, a communicator acknowledg- ing the existence of possible counterpositions increases the image of honesty, fairmindedness, and expertise in the minds of the receivers. The advice according to this model would be to use a two-sided message. The Discounting Hypothesis assumes that persuasion is based on some type of reaction to content.
A communicator providing arguments and information on all sides of the issue demonstrates expertise, open- mindedness, and provides the basis for rational beliefs. The key to the effectiveness of the message is the refutational properties. The two-sided message examines the available counterarguments and, unlike the one- sided message, gives defenses to strengthen the beliefs.
This perspec- tive does not consider audience or topic variables, but based on a com- parison of message strategies generates the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: Results of message sidedness experiments will demon- strate consistent and homogeneous results favoring two- sided over one-sided messages. Meta-analysis is the process of quantitative- ly summarizing the available empirical data on an issue to estimate a common effect Bangert-Drowns, Literature Review Relevant research materials were obtained by a computer search of Psychological Abstracts, a manual search of Psychological Abstracts, the Fall Social Sciences Citation Index, the Index to Journals in Communication Studies Through , and by searching all of the references and bibliographies of located studies and reviews.
To be included in this meta-analysis, a study had to compare the persuasiveness of a one-sided Eind a two-sided message. A two-sided message was defined as a message including both the arguments in favor of and opposed to the conclusion advocated by the communicator. All studies con- taining sufficient statistical information permitting the calculation of an effect size, in this case the correlation, are included in this report.
Coding Procedures Each study was coded for the relevant features for each hypothesis that would moderate the effect of message features. These features are a part of the hypotheses suggested by the theoretical perspectives and the earlier experiments. An examination of the actual experiments for information regarding the methodology provided the information necessary for the coding and evaluation of these features.
Table 1 con- tains the stimmary information on each particular m. Type of two-sided message. In the existing experimental literature there exists two types of two-sided messages. Two-sided messages could be either refutational or non-refutational. Refutational two-sided messages were messages that mention counterarguments to the posi- tion advocated and then refute them. The intent is to introduce the con- trary position and demonstrate why this position is inferior to the posi- tion advocated by the communicator.
The other type of two-sided messages were considered nonrefutational. This message only mentioned the counterarguments without offering a refutation of them. The separa- tion between types of two-sided messages is particularly relevant to the Discounting Hypothesis.
The reason in Hypothesis 2 that the two-sided message was preferred was the ability of the message sender to consider and refute counterarguments. The nonrefutational message according to the Discounting Hypothesis should be less persuasive since it does not address the counterarguments. However, for the first hypothesis this should only raake a difference after audience favorableness is considered.
All later citations are provided in references that use same data set. Audience favorableness. Hypothesis One predicts that audience favorability toward the topic would be a moderating feature necessary for this analysis. The favorability of the audience toward the conclu- sions advocated by the message source was coded for the studies. An audience was coded as favorable, unfavorable, or unknown. This is one variable that the ELM considers relevant to the motivation of an au- dience to process the message.
Statistical Analysis The results of each study were converted to a common metric, the correlation coefficient, for averaging. One alternative metric. Fisher's z transformation, does not con- tain the underestimation bias of the correlation coefficient. However, Fall the overestimation bias of Fisher's z is greater than the underestima- tion bias of the correlation coefficient and is therefore only recommended when the average sample per correlation is low and the number of estimates is low Strube, The average sample size in these in- vestigations is over 10 subjects and the number of investigations greater than five, so the untransformed correlation coefficient was used.
However, the estimates of the correlations slightly underestimate the true correlation rho. Meta- analysis requires the extraction of statistical information from original reports of data, and subsequent conversion to a common metric, using formulas established for such transformations.
Once converted, the cor- relations were averaged, weighting by the sample size of the study. Once an average is established, the average correlation is tested for homogeneity. The test used is the Schmidt-Hunter test for moderators. The test estimates the expected amount of variance due to sampling er- ror and compares that estimate with the observed amount of variance in the sample of correlations. The Schmidt-Hunter procedure was selected because of its sensitivi- ty to the existence of moderators.
These interactions would create heterogeneity among the findings of a group of experiments. The Schmidt-Hunter's procedure sensitivity to variations in the correlations as compared to other tests permits the increased prob- ability of detecting moderator variables.
While the Western Journal of Speech Communication average effect indicated a very slight advantage for the two-sided message, this estimate should not be considered representative of the entire sample of studies or messages. This essay recognizes the controversy but operates based on the logic that main effects, in the presence of a moderator or interaction, should incorporate the moderator or interaction to interpret the effect.
The justification for this decision can be found elsewhere Keppel, ; Rosenthal, ; Winer, Type of Two-sided Message The moderating effect of the type of two-sided message refutational or non-refutational generated homogeneous results. These results indicate that the originally heterogeneous overall result can be ex- plained by the differing operationalizations of what constituted a two- sided message.
The results of these findings support Hypothesis 2 and serve to disconfirm Hypothesis 1 both A and B since additional moderators are unnecessary. The one-sided message is more persuasive than a two-sided message with no refutation. However, a two-sided message with refutation is more persuasive than a one-sided message. It should be noted that in no experiment did all three messages occur, therefore, a direct test within one experiment was not possible. Em- pirically, the order of most effective messages should be two-sided with refutation, one-sided, and two-sided with no refutation.
Only those studies in which an audience could be coded as initially favorable or unfavorable were included in this analysis. The studies coded as "unknown" did not permit any determination about how to evaluate the favorableness of the audience and therefore cannot be included. This indicates that the moderating feature for au- dience favorableness did not produce homogeneous results.
According to Hypothesis 1 A, this finding should be homogeneous and the effect size negative. The effect size was neither negative nor homogeneous. This analysis indicated that the introduc- tion of audience favorability failed as a potential moderator in this analysis. While the effect size was positive for this analysis of Hypothesis 1 B, the introduction of audience favorability should produce homogeneous results. Therefore, the first hypothesis, both A and B, were unsupported in this analysis.
For a complete listing of the studies and effect sizes associated with this analysis, see Table 2. When the difference between a two-sided message with and without refutation was incorporated into the analysis the heterogeneous results became homogeneous. The reclassification of messages did not require any moderator variables relating to audience favorability and sufficiently explains the subsequent effects.
Theoretical Implications Hypothesis 1 predicted that only after consideration of audience favorahleness will consistent findings he generated. The results indicated that such motivational factors are not necessary for generating a con- sistent and simple conclusion.
However, the findings are not inconsistent with the underlying theory. It is possible to reinterpret the findings as consistent with the ELM hy hypothesiz- ing some process of cognitive processing that would account for the find- ings. For example, hypothesizing that the type of two-sided message causes a cbange in the motivational level of individuals to process message content would account for the findings.
This explanation of the findings would be consistent with the ELM. The result is an inability to test the theory in any critical sense hecause the theory can be renovated to explain existing data. The Discounting Hypothesis, operationalized in Hypothesis 2, re- ceived support.
Tbe superiority of the one-sided message to the two-sided message with no refutation indicates the superiority of the considera- tion of counterarguments on message receivers. Unfortunately, the Dis- counting Hypothesis is really more an explanation for a particular ef- fect rather than a general theory of attitude change. While the theory is supported by the available data, it is unclear what additional situa- tions are supported by these findings. The conclusion for the Discount- ing Hypothesis should he contrasted with tbe ELM, where the findings do not support the particular application hut leave tbe larger theoretical issues regarding message processing unchanged.
The results of this experiment may fit into a larger perspective of- fered by Innoculation Theory McGuire, a, h. Innoculation theory uses the metaphor of a disease to represent opinion and attitude change. Innoculation occurs when a speaker includes and then refutes counterarguments to the position advocated. This "innoculates" the message receivers from subsequent counterpersuasion. This theory Fall would argue that a two-sided message would be more effective because it inhibits counterarguments.
It may be that the two theories are explaining the same process but from either a static discounting or a dynamic innoculation view. The results have implications for future empirical research and theory. The results point to areas that lack sufficient information about the cognitive processes of individuals to make clear and encompassing theoretical statements that permit a "final" conclusion. One immediate implication is the need for an experiment to incorporate all three types of messages in one single experiment to test the theoretically derived propositions included in this investigation.
An experiment using all three messages should find that a one-sided message is more effective than a two-sided message with no refutation, and that a two-sided message with refutation is more effective than a one-sided message. The results of the meta-analysis indicate this particular possibility, and one recent experiment does confirm these findings Allen, et al. A limitation exists within the data that is not readily apparent from inspection of the messages or studies.
The conclusions of any meta- analysis, no matter how consistent, depend on the variability and suffi- ciency of the original data to make conclusions. If the experiments do not contain sufficient variability of conditions or messages, the conclu- sions of tbe analysis are limited.
However, the existence of such limita- tions is an empirical issue based on theoretical presuppositions. However, until such time as alternative theoretical positions, inconsis- tent data, or replication of this analysis become available, the conclu- sion about the effectiveness of a two-sided refutational message appears warranted. Practical Implications The implications of the results for application to practical situations should be obvious. The results indicate that a communicator generally should use a two-sided message with a recognition and refutation of the available counterarguments.
Tbis produces the most favorable attitude response from the message receivers. At the current time it is unknown how the choice of message sidedness type effects the reaction of the receivers toward the message sender. Future research should consider and explore the effect that such message design has on communicator credibility. While a followup experiment indicated a two-sided message with refutation resulted in audience ratings of the source as more credi- ble Allen, et al.
For this system, using a binary variable one-sided or two-sided message , a correlation of the size observed here -. Compared to other potential message features, message sidedness is less important. Various message strategies have been examined us- ing meta-analysis and the findings indicate a pattern of effects that vary in importance.
However, the effects of message sidedness should not be dismissed as unimportant. Abelson argued a lot of misconception exists about the impor- tance of small effect sizes. He pointed out that for one at bat in a base- ball game the difference between using a. That is ahout the same as the effect size observed in this meta-analysis.
What Abelson concluded is that these small ef- fect sizes are of importance in settings where there is the assumption of cumulative processes, including "the persueisive effects of advertis- ing. Abelson pointed out that what Fall on the surface may appear as small effect sizes can in fact be quite im- portant at both a theoretical and practical level. While the effect is not as lEirge as others, it still should be considered important. The observed difference in operationalizing what is meant by a two- sided message points to the need for a theory of messages and message effects.
Without such theories, past and future experiments may con- tain problems that may not be as easily or readily identifiable as in tbe message sidedness literature. The real test of the value of these results will be whether they contribute to an overall theory of messages. Tbe previous ideas about messages tended to indicate an indeterminancy about the effect of messages creating a web of contextual features that prevented generalizations.
The evidence accumulated and analyzed here indicates the possibility that simple generalizations may be possible. Without a clear and comprehensive theory of message effects, such generalizations will be limited or impossible. The conclusions should serve to help practitioners and assist in curriculum development. However, the larger picture needs development for these results to be placed within the context of future theoretical and experimental issues. Persuasiveness in these studies was operationalized hy the use of self-report measures.
The results of analyses considering publication bias, education level of the audience, or audience familiarity with the topic is availahle from the author. None of these analyses affect the findings of this report. A variance explanation paradox: When a little is a lot.
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Journal of Marketing Research, 18, Western Journal of Speech Communication, 50, Bettinghaus, E. Some specific factors affecting attitude change. Journal of Communication, 19, Burgoon, M.
TIPPING NRL SPORTSBETTING
These signal lights flashed to advise you to buckle your seat belts, release the parking brake, and warn you of low fuel levels and unclosed doors. These features, although common today, were a standout feature of the day. Source: Mecum Performance and Engine Selection In , Ford offered the vehicle with a choice of seven engines, one 6-cylinder engine, and six V8 engines.
Horsepower ranged from in the 6-cylinder engine and all the way up to horsepower and more in the cubic-inch V8 engine. A newcomer in the engine lineup was the engine which served as a replacement for the old engines. The offered 30 more horsepower than the engine, hp in total.
The Cobra Jet Mustang featured the V8 engine with hp. Based on the police car short block engine, the featured an aluminum manifold, low-riser cylinder heads, and a special camshaft. The changes did not stop there for the Cobra Jet Mustang. Several suspension tweaks made the Ford Mustangs highly popular on the drag strip. The multiple engine options made the Mustang more accessible to a larger customer base. Not only in terms of financial commitments but also based on power needs.
Those in need of a more sporty car could opt-in for one of the stronger V8s. Alternatively, if all you only needed were a relaxed coupe, convertible, or a fastback, the horsepower 6-cylinder engine would still provide an enjoyable ride for a smaller purchase.
Special Editions was an interesting year for the vehicle. The movie showcased the capabilities of the car and helped develop the iconic status of the Mustang. These cars had a similar design to the California special package complete with special striping and Shelby styling.
The diversity now included fastback and convertible models in GT versions with hp, the GT with the 7-liter V8 Cobra Jet engine, or the GTKR with the same engine but with other modifications to the suspension. They also offered power front disc brakes which came at an extra cost and were only offered with the and engines.
Racing legacy The Ford Mustang was a force to be reckoned with in the world of racing. Stripped down, the V8 powered Mustangs were present in all major racing events such as the 24 hours of Daytona , the season of Trans American Championship, SCCA regional championships and also major European racing events such as the 6 Hours of Nurburgring, Tour de France and several others.
The Mustang was basically everywhere and regularly featured on the podium. The car was versatile, powerful, and consistently reliable from endurance races to the drag strip. Overall, the first-generation vehicle instantly succeeded in all areas of competitive driving. They were also successful in winning the Trans-American Championship in both and Even today, first-generation Mustang remains a common choice for vintage racing events.
Bullitt launches the Mustang The movie Bullitt was absolutely groundbreaking back in , as it not only glorified the vehicle but also set benchmarks on how to effectively shoot car campaigns in an urban environment. This introduced a whole new film genre to the world. It should also be noted that Steve McQueen participated in the film as the main actor, but as an avid motorist and a fan of racing motorcycles and cars, he drove most of the rides in the film himself.
He often mentioned in later interviews he loved the car and had it in his personal collection. They quickly realized how powerful the film industry could be to promote cars. The F is located in Holiday, Florida, and has been listed for sale here on eBay. The F looks quite good from a distance, but when you get closer, you can see that the Raven Black paint is really showing its age.
This is particularly obvious along the body-line just above the side strips, where there is also some evidence of corrosion beginning to form. It would probably be a smart idea for the next owner to address this quite quickly because, in overall terms, this old Ford is too nice to let go to wrack-and-ruin. There is some rust in the bottom of the tailgate, but this would appear to be the only penetrating rust in the entire vehicle. The panels themselves look to be nice and straight, with no signs of any significant dings or dents.
The underside of the vehicle wears a coating of surface corrosion, but it still looks solid. There is some corrosion visible around the door hinges, so it might be worth the effort to inspect and treat this before it can deteriorate. The owner has had the good sense to fit a plastic bed-liner to the vehicle, and while I am a strong advocate for these, I would still be inclined to remove it just to check that all is well beneath it.
If everything looks okay, then it is an easy matter to refit it. The condition of the trim and chrome is well above average for a workhorse of this age, while the glass also appears to be in good condition. With a ci V8 under the hood, this old Ford has hp at its disposal.
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